1.)Explain pulmonary ventilation by following a molecule of oxygen in the atmosphere to the cell mitochondria where it accepts two hydrogen atoms to form metabolic water. Begin with the external nares and the nasal cavities followed by the nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx, to the trachea, bronchi and alveolus through the tissues of the alveolus and capillary and into the plasma to the hemoglobin in the RBC. Include the tissues found in each area EX. pseudostratified epithelium with goblet cells, hyaline and elastic cartilage in the larynx, simple squamous in the alveolus and capillaries. Provide the oxygen pressures in each area. Ex atmospheric air pressure, oxygen pressure in the capillary at the arterial end of alveolus, pressure in the alveolus and the pressure in the vessel at the venous end of the alveolus followed by pressure after shunt blood has been added in the pulmonary vein, Include the pressure in all the systemic arteries. At the tissue level, provide the oxygen pressure at the arterial end of the capillary followed by the oxygen pressure in the tissues and the pressure at the venous end of the capillary. Also provide the pressure of oxygen in all the veins in the systemic circulation. Include the pressures of carbon dioxide beginning with the tissue level and ending in the atmosphere. You may use diagrams, written or charts to explain your answer.
2.)Trace a McDonald hamburger through the digestive tract. Include all the structures it passes through beginning with the mouth: vestibule, lips, teeth, tongue, tonsils, taste buds, muscles of mastication, taste buds, papillae, glands and the secretions produced in each area. Include the hormones and nerves controlling digestion, the purpose of each anatomical area, where they are the enzymes produced and their specific effect on carbohydrates (bun), protein (steak), and lipid-fried chicken).
3.)Starting with the breaking down of red blood cells trace, the formation of urobilinogen from hemoglobin to the intestine and to the kidneys. How does urobilinogen get into the urine and how is stercobilin formed in the feces? In your answer, the blood flow to the liver from the hepatic portal vein and hepatic artery need to be included as well as the flow of bile in the ducts beginning with the liver canaliculi and ending at the duodenal papilla projecting into small intestine. Also include in your answer the cause of hemolytic jaundice, obstructive jaundice and the formation of gallstones.
4.)Explain an electrocardiogram and the placement of the leads using bipolar limb leads, chest leads, and augmented unipolar limb leads. Include the purpose of an EKG, why the t wave goes up. Explain why the QRS wave goes down instead of up in V1and V2 and in AvF the QRS also goes down and the others go up.
5.)There are four major components determining homeostasis. colloidal osmotic pressure (COP) of the plasma, colloidal osmotic pressure (COP) of the tissues, blood pressure, and interstitial free fluid pressure. Explain why the average pressure is 17.3mm Hg. The arterial end of the capillary blood pressure is 30 mmHg, the venous end of the capillary is 40mm Hg., the COP of the blood is 28 mm Hg; (name the components causing the 28 mm pressure). The COP of the tissues is 8 mm Hg; what creates this pressure? The interstitial free fluid (IFP) pressure is –3mm Hg., How is this pressure derived (usually negative)? Edema is when the fluid flows into the tissues and dehydration is a result of water flowing into the vessel. Based on the formula, why do nutrients flow out of the capillary at the arterial end and flow into the capillary at the venous end. Why is it necessary to have the overall average, 17.3 mm Hg, be slightly positive?